Part III. Morphology and Syntax 13. Words and morphemes

13.1 Words and word forms

13.1.1 Different syntactic compatibilities of word forms

*write *writes *wrote

John has written a letter.

*writing

13.1.2 Francis’ & Kučera’s 1982 definition of a graphic word

“A word is a string of continuous alphanumeric characters with space on either side; may include hyphens and apostrophes, but no other punctuation marks.”

FoCL, Chapter 13: Words and morphemes) 206

13.1.3 Combination principles of morphology

1. Inflection is the systematic variation of a word with which it can perform different syntactic and semantic functions, and adapt to different syntactic environments. Examples are learn, learn/s, learn/ed, and learn/ing.

2. Derivation is the combination of a word with an affix. Examples are clear/ness, clear/ly, and un/clear.

3. Composition is the combination of two or more words into a new word form. Examples are gas/light,

hard/wood, over/indulge, and over-the-counter.

13.1.4 Definition of the notion word

Word =_{def} {associated analyzed word forms} 13.1.5 Example of an analyzed word form

[wolves (PN) wolf] 13.1.6 Analysis of an inflecting word

word word forms wolf =_{def} {[wolf (SN) wolf],

[wolf’s (GN) wolf], [wolves (PN) wolf], [wolves’ (GN) wolf]}

13.1.7 Analysis of a noninflecting word

word word forms and =_{def} { [and (cnj) and] }

FoCL, Chapter 13: Words and morphemes) 208

13.1.8 Parts of speech

• verbs, e.g., walk, read, give, help, teach, …

• nouns, e.g., book, table, woman, messenger, arena, …

• adjective-adverbials, e.g., quick, good, low, …

• conjunctions, e.g., and, or, because, after, …

• prepositions, e.g., in, on, over, under, before, …

• determiners, e.g., a, the, every, some, all, any, …

• particles, e.g., only, already, just…

13.1.9 Classification of the parts of speech into open and closed classes

verbs nouns

adjectives

[figure]

conjunctions prepositions

determiners open classes closed classes parts of speech

[figure]

[figure]

[figure] [figure]

[figure]

13.1.10 Comparison of the open and the closed classes

• The open classes comprise several 10 000 elements, while the closed classes contain only a few hundred words.

• The morphological processes of inflection, derivation, and composition are productive in the open classes, but not in the closed classes.

• In the open classes, the use of words is constantly changing, with new ones entering and obsolete ones leaving the current language, while the closed classes do not show a comparable fluctuation.

13.1.11 Parts of speech and types of signs

The elements of the open classes are also called content words, while the elements of the closed classes are also called function words. In this distinction, however, the sign type must be taken into consideration besides the category.

This is because only the symbols among the nouns, verbs, and adjective-adverbials are content words in the proper sense. Indices, on the other hand, e.g. the personal pronouns he, she, it etc., are considered function words even though they are of the category noun. Indexical adverbs like here or now do not even inflect, forming no comparatives and superlatives. The sign type name is also a special case among the nouns.

13.2 Segmentation and concatenation

13.2.1 Relation of words and their inflectional forms in German

base forms inflectional forms

nouns:  23 000  92 000
verbs:  6 000  144 000
adjective-adverbials:  11 000  198 000

40 000 434 000

13.2.2 Number of noun-noun compositions

• length two: n^{2} Examples Haus/schuh, Schuh/haus, Jäger/jäger. This means that from 20 000 nouns 400 000 000 possible compounds of length 2 can be derived (base forms).

• length three: n^{3}

Examples: Haus/schuh/sohle, Sport/schuh/haus, Jäger/jäger/jäger. This means that an additional

8 000 000 000 000 000 (eight thousand trillion) possible words may be formed.

13.2.3 Possible words, actual words, and neologisms

• Possible words Because there is no grammatical limit on the length of noun compounds, the number of possible word forms in German is infinite. These word forms exist potentially because of the inherent productivity of morphology.

• Actual words The set of words and word forms used by the language community within a certain interval of time is finite.

• Neologisms Neologisms are coined spontaneously by the language users on the basis of known words and the rules of word formation. Neologisms turn possible words into actual words.

13.2.4 Examples of neologisms in English

insurrectionist (inmate) three-player (set) copper-jacketed (bullets) bad-guyness cyberstalker trapped-rat (frenzy) self-tapping (screw) dismissiveness migraineur extraconstitutional (gimmick)

13.2.5 Definition of the notion morpheme

morpheme =_{def} {associated analyzed allomorphs}

13.2.6 Formal analysis of the morpheme wolf

morpheme allomorphs

wolf =_{def} {[wolf (SN SR) wolf], [wolv (PN SR) wolf]}

13.2.7 Comparing morpheme and word wolf

morpheme  allomorphs  word  word forms
wolf =_{def}  {wolf,  wolf =_{def} {wolf,

wolv} wolf/’s, wolv/es, wolv/es/’}

13.2.8 Alternative forms of segmentation

allomorphs: learn/ing syllables: lear/ning

phonemes: l/e/r/n/i/n/g letters: l/e/a/r/n/i/n/g

13.3 Morphemes and allomorphs

13.3.1 The regular morpheme learn

morpheme allomorphs learn =_{def} {[learn (N … V) learn]}

13.3.2 The irregular morpheme swim

morpheme allomorphs swim =_{def} {[swim (N … V1) swim],

[swimm (… B) swim], [swam (N … V2) swim], [swum (N … V) swim]}

13.3.3 An example of suppletion

morpheme allomorphs good =_{def} {[good (ADV IR) good],

[bett (CAD IR) good], [b (SAD IR) good]} 13.3.4 Example of a bound morpheme (hypothetical)

morpheme allomorphs

-s =_{def} {[s (PL1) plural], [es (PL2) plural], [en (PL3) plural], [# (PL4) plural]}

13.4 Categorization and lemmatization

13.4.1 Morphological analysis of ungelernte

+ + + +

concatenation

prefix_{un} prefix_{ge}

stem morpheme

lern

suffix_{t} suffix_{e}

word class combinatorics

meaning- analysis 13.4.2 Schematic derivation in LA-grammar

[figure]

("un" (CAT1) MEAN-a) + ("ge" (CAT2) MEAN-b)
("un/ge" (CAT3) MEAN-c) + ("lern" (CAT4) MEAN-d)
    ("un/ge/lern" (CAT5) MEAN-e) + ("t" (CAT6) MEAN-f)
       ("un/ge/lern/t" (CAT7) MEAN-g) + ("e" (CAT8) MEAN-h)
          ("un/ge/lern/t/e" (CAT9) MEAN-i)

13.4.3 Components of word form recognition

• On-line lexicon For each element (e.g. morpheme) of the natural language there must be defined a lexical analysis which is stored electronically.

• Recognition algorithm Using the on-line lexicon, each unknown word form (e.g. wolves) must be characterized automatically with respect to categorization and lemmatization:

– Categorization consists in specifying the part of speech (e.g. noun) and the morphosyntactic properties of the surface (e.g. plural); needed for syntactic analysis.

– Lemmatization consists in specifying the correct base form (e.g. wolf); provides access to the corresponding lemma in a semantic lexicon.

FoCL, Chapter 13: Words and morphemes) 219

13.4.4 Basic structure of a lemma

[surface (lexical description)] 13.4.5 Lemma of a traditional dictionary (excerpt)

1wolf \’wu̇lf\ n. pl wolves \’wu̇lvz\ often attributed [ME, fr. OE wulf; akin to OHG wolf, L lupus, Gk lykos] 1 pl also wolf a: any of various large predatory mammals (genus Canis and exp. C. lupus) that resemble the related dogs, are destructive to game and livestock, and may rarely attack man esp. when in a pack – compare COYOTE, JACKAL b: the fur of a wolf …

13.4.6 Matching a surface onto a key

word form surface:  ^{wolf} matching lemma:  ^{[wolf (lexical description)]}

13.4.7 Two-step procedure of word form recognition

surface:  ^{.}^{.}^{surface:}^{analyzed}  ^{wolves}  ^{access to lemma} categorization and lemmatization^{[wolves (noun plural) wolf]}^{Lemma:}  ^{[wolf (lexical description)]}

13.4.8 Reason for the Two-step procedure

In the natural languages

• the number of word forms is considerably larger than the number of words, at least in inflectional and agglutinating languages, and

• the lexical lemmata normally define words rather than word forms,

FoCL, Chapter 13: Words and morphemes) 221

13.5 Methods of automatic word form recognition

13.5.1 Word form method Based on a lexicon of analyzed word forms. 13.5.2 Analyzed word form as lexical lemma

[wolves (part of speech: Subst, num: Pl, case: N,D,A, base form: wolf)] Categorization and lemmatization are not handled by rules, but solely by the lexical entry. 13.5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the word form method

• Advantage Allows for the simplest recognition algorithm because the surface of the unknown word form, e.g. wolves, is simply matched whole onto the corresponding key in the analysis lexicon.

• Disadvantages The production of the analysis lexicon is costly, its size is extremely large, and there is no possibility to recognize neologisms.

\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

13.5.4 Morpheme method

Based on a lexicon of analyzed morphemes.

13.5.5 Schema of the morpheme method

surface: wolves

| | segmentation

allomorphs: wolv/es

⇓ ⇓ reduction

morphemes:  wolf+s  base form lookup and concatenation

(1) segmentation into allomorphs, (2) reduction of allomorphs to the morphemes, (3) recognition of morphemes using an analysis lexicon, and (4) rule-based concatenation of morphemes to derive analyzed word form.

13.5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of the morpheme method

• Advantages Uses the smallest analysis lexicon. Neologisms may be analyzed and recognized during run-time using a rule-based segmentation and concatenation of complex word forms into their elements (morphemes).

• Disadvantages A maximally complex recognition algorithm (N P complete).

13.5.7 Allomorph method

Based on a lexicon of elementary base forms, from which a lexicon of analyzed allomorphs is derived before run by means of allo-rules..

13.5.8 Schema of the allomorph method

surface: wolves

| | segmentation

allomorphs: wolv/es allomorph lookup and concatenation

⇑ ⇑ derivation of allomorphs before run-time

morphemes & allomorphs: wolf s

During run-time, the allomorphs of the allomorph lexicon are available as precomputed, fully analyzed forms, providing the basis for a maximally simple segmentation: the unknown surface is matched from left to right with suitable allomorphs – without any reduction to morphemes. Concatenation takes place on the level of analyzed allomorphs by means of combi-rules.

13.5.9 Schematic comparison of the three basic methods

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form lexicon}^{word form lexicon}  ^{elementary lexicon}^{allomorph lexicon}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{allomorphs} (3) allomorph method^{morpheme lexicon}^{morphemes}^{allomorphs}^{derivation}^{of word forms}  matching  ^{derivation}^{of allomorphs}^{allomorph}^{reduction}  matching^{segmentation of word form}^{unsegmented word form} matching^{unanalyzed word form surface} (1) word form method  (2) morpheme method

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 225

14. Word form recognition in LA-Morph

14.1 Allo-rules

14.1.1 Abstract format of an allo-rule

lemma of the^{elementary lexicon}^{[surface (cat) sem]}^{(input pattern) ⇒}  ^{(output pattern 1)} output  ^{(output pattern 2)}^{[surface-1 (cat-1) sem]}^{allomorph-1}  ^{[surface-2 (cat-2) sem]}^{allomorph-2} matching  generation^{...}^{...}^{...} input

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 226

14.1.2 Example of a base form lemma

  ("derive" (nom a v) derive)

14.1.3 Result of applying allo-rules to base form lemma

 ("derive" (sr nom a v) derive)
 ("deriv" (sr a v) derive)

14.1.4 Base form entry of schlafen

("schla2fen" (KV VH N GE  {hinueber VS GE } {durch VH A GE }
  {aus VH GE } {ein VS GE }\$ <be VH A GE- >
  <ent VS GE- > <ueber VH A GE- > <ver VH A GE- >)
  schlafen)

14.1.5 Output of allo-rules for schlafen

("schlaf" (IV V1 VH N GE { hinüber VS GE } { durch VH A GE }
{ aus VH GE } { ein VS GE } $ < be VH A GE- >
< ent VS GE- > < über VH A GE- > < ver VH A GE- > )
schlafen)
("schläf" (IV V2 _0 N GE { hinüber VS GE } { durch VH A GE }
{ aus VH GE } { ein VS GE } $ < be VH A GE- >
< ent VS GE- > < über VH A GE- > < ver VH A GE- > )
schlafen)
("schlief" (IV V34 _0 N GE { hinüber VS GE } { durch VH A GE }
{ aus VH GE } { ein VS GE } $ < be VH A GE- >
< ent VS GE- > < über VH A GE- > < ver VH A GE- > )
schlafen_i)

14.1.6 The word forms of schlafen (excerpt)

("schlaf/e" (S1 {hinüber}{durch A}{aus}{ein} V) schlafen_p)
("schlaf/e" (S13 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._k1)
("schlaf/e/n" (P13 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._pk1)
("schlaf/e/st" (S2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._k1)
("schlaf/e/t" (P2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._k1)
("schlaf/t" (P2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._p)
("schlaf/end" (GER ) schlafen)
("schlaf/end/e" (E ) schlafen)
("schlaf/end/en" (EN ) schlafen)
("schlaf/end/er" (ER ) schlafen)
("schlaf/end/es" (ES ) schlafen)
("schlaf/end/em" (EM ) schlafen)
("schlaf/e/st" (S2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._k1)
("schlaf/e/t" (P2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._k1)
("schläf/st" (S2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._p)
("schläf/t" (S3 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._p)
("schlief" (S13 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._i)
("schlief/e" (S13 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._k2)
("schlief/en" (P13 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._ik2)

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 229

("schlief/est" (S2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._ik2)
("schlief/et" (P2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._ik2)
("schlief/st" (S2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._ik2)
("schlief/t" (P2 {hinüber} {durch A} {aus} {ein} V ) s._i)
("ge/schlaf/en" (H) schlafen)
("ge/schlaf/en/e" (E) schlafen)
("ge/schlaf/en/en" (EN) schlafen)
("ge/schlaf/en/es" (ES) schlafen)
("ge/schlaf/en/er" (ER) schlafen)
("ge/schlaf/en/em" (EM) schlafen)
("aus/schlaf/e" (S1 V) ausschlafen_pk1)
("aus/schlaf/e" (S13 V ) ausschlafen_k1)
("aus/schlaf/en" (P13 A V ) ausschlafen_pk1)
   ...
("aus/schläf/st" (S2 V) ausschlafen_p)
("aus/schläf/t" (S3 V) ausschlafen_p)
   ...

14.1.7 Four degrees of regularity in LA-Morph

• Regular inflectional paradigm The paradigm is represented by one lemma without any special surface markings, from which one allomorph is derived, e.g. learn ⇒ learn, or book ⇒ book.

• Semi-regular inflectional paradigm The paradigm is represented by one lemma without any special surface markings, from which more than one

allomorph is derived, e.g. derive ⇒ derive, deriv, or wolf ⇒ wolf, wolv.

• Semi-irregular inflectional paradigm The paradigm is represented by one lemma with a special surface marker, from which more than one allo-

morph is derived, e.g. swIm ⇒ swim, swimm, swam, swum.

• Irregular inflectional paradigm The paradigm is represented by several lemmata for suppletive allomorphs which pass through the default rule, e.g. go ⇒ go, went ⇒ went, gone ⇒ gone. The allomorphs serve as input to general combi-rules, as

in go/ing.

14.1.8 Tabular presentation of the degrees of regularity

one lemma  lemma without  one allomorph
per paradigm  markings  per lemma
regular  yes  yes  yes
semi-regular  yes  yes  no
semi-irregular  yes  no  no
irregular  no  no  yes

14.2 Phenomena of allomorphy

14.2.1 Allomorphs of semi-regular nouns

LEX  ALLO1  ALLO2
wolf  wolf  wolv
knife  knife  knive
ability  ability  abiliti
academy  academy  academi
agency  agency  agenci
money  money  moni

14.2.2 Allomorphs of semi-irregular nouns

LEX  ALLO1  ALLO2
analysis  analysis  analyses
larva  larva  larvae
stratum  stratum  strati
matrix  matrix  matrices
thesis  thesis  theses
criterion  criterion  criteria

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 233

tempo  tempo  tempi
calculus  calculus  calculi

14.2.3 Allomorphs of semi-regular verbs

LEX  ALLO1  ALLO2
derive  derive  deriv
dangle  dangle  dangl
undulate  undulate  undulat

accompany accompany accompani

14.2.4 Allomorphs of semi-irregular verbs

LEX  ALLO1  ALLO2  ALLO3  ALLO4
swIm  swim  swimm  swam  swum
rUN  run  runn  ran  run
bET  bet  bett  bet  bet

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 234

14.2.5 Allomorphs of semi-regular adjective-adverbials

LEX  ALLO1  ALLO2
able  able  abl
happy  happy  happi
free  free  fre
true  true  tru

14.2.6 Definition of the allomorph quotient The allomorph quotient is the percentage of additional allomorphs relative to the number of base form entries.

14.2.7 The allomorph quotient of different languages Italian: 37% German: 31% English: 8,97% 14.2.8 Compounds with ‘pseudo-’ contained in Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary

pseudoclassic pseudopregnancy pseudosalt pseudoscientific

etc.

14.2.9 Compounds with ‘pseudo-’ not contained in Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary

pseudogothic pseudomigrane pseudoscientist pseudovegetarian

etc.

14.2.10 Problem for recognition algorithm

In order to recognize the highly productive compositions involving the prefix pseudo, the LA-Morph system must provide a general rule-based analysis. As a consequence, the word forms in 14.2.8, are analyzed as ambiguous whereby the second reading stems from the compositional analysis based on the known forms, e.g. pseudo and

classic.

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 236

14.2.11 Solution I Automatic removal of all non-elementary base forms from the on-line lexicon. 14.2.12 Solution II Leaving the non-elementary base forms like 14.2.8 in the lexicon, but selecting the most likely reading after the word form analysis. 14.2.13 Solution III Using two lexica. One is an elementary lexicon which does not contain any non-elementary base forms. It is used for the categorization and lemmatization of word forms. The other is a base form lexicon of content words. It assigns semantic representations to base forms including composita and derivata established in use. During word form analysis the two lexica are related by matching the result of lemmatization onto a corresponding – if present – key word of the base form lexicon (cf. 13.4.7).

14.2.14 Example of solution III

The compositional analysis of kin/ship would be matched onto kinship in the non-elementary base form lexicon, accessing the proper semantic description. In this way, (i) maximal data coverage – including neologisms – is ensured by a rule based analysis, (ii) the possibility of noncompositional meanings is accounted for, and (iii) unnecessary ambiguities are avoided.

14.3 Left-associative segmentation into allomorphs

14.3.1 Left-associative letter by letter matching

attempt 1:^{surface:}^{attempt 2:}  ^{W}^{W} ^{O}^{W}  ^{L}  ^{F}^{O}  ^{V}^{L}^{O}  ×^{V}^{L} b14.3.1.pictex

14.3.2 Hypothetical examples of English allowing alternative segmentations

coverage grandparent history lamp/lightland/s/end
cover/age grandpa/renthi/story lam/plightland/send
cove/rage  his/tory
rampage rampart scar/face sing/able war/plane
ramp/age ramp/art scarf/ace sin/gable warp/lane
ram/page ram/part

14.3.3 Alternative segmentations of a word form in German

surface:  Staubecken  Staubecken
segmentation:  Stau/becken  Staub/ecke/n
translation:  reservoir  dust corners

14.3.4 Storing allomorphs in a trie structure

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14.3.5 Possibilities after finding an entry in the trie structure

• There are no letters left in the surface of the unknown word form, e.g. SWAM. Then the program simply returns the analysis stored at the last letter, here M.

• There are still letters left in the surface of the unknown word form. Then one of the following alternatives applies:

– The allomorph found so far is part of the word form, as swim in SWIMS. Then the program (i) gives the lexical analysis of swim to the combi-rules of the system and (ii) looks for the next allomorph (here s), starting again from the top level of the trie structure.

– The allomorph found so far is not part of the word form, as swam in SWAMPY. In this case the program continues down the trie structure provided there are continuations. In our example, it will find swamp.

Because it becomes apparent only at the very end of a word form which of these two possibilities applies – or whether they apply simultaneously in the case of an ambiguity – they are pursued simultaneously by the program.

FoCL, Chapter 14: Word form recognition in LA-Morph) 241

14.4 Combi-rules

14.4.1 Structure of combi-rules

input output r_{n}: (pattern of start) (pattern of next) ⇒ rp_{n} (pattern of new start)

14.4.2 Difference between allo- and combi-rules Combi-rules differ from allo-rules in that they are defined for different domains and different ranges:

An allo-rule takes a lexical entry as input and maps it into one or more allomorphs.

A combi-rule takes a word form start and a next allomorph as input and maps it into a new word form start.

14.4.3 Tasks of combi-rules

The combi-rules ensure that

1. the allomorphs found in the surface are not combined into ungrammatical word forms, e.g. *swam+ing or *swimm+s (input condition),

2. the surfaces of grammatical allomorph combinations are properly concatenated,

e.g. swim+s ⇒ swims,

3. the categories of the input pair are mapped into the correct result category, e.g. (NOM V) + (SX S3) ⇒ (S3 V),

4. the correct result is formed on the level of semantic interpretation, and

5. after a successful rule application the correct rule package for the next combination is activated.

14.4.4 Derivation of unduly in LA-Morph

1 +u [NIL . NIL]
2  +n [NIL . (un (PX PREF) UN)]
RP:{V-START N-START A-START P-START}; fired: P-START
3   +d [(un (PX PREF) UN) . (d (GG) NIL)]
     +d [NIL . NIL]
4     +u [(un (PX PREF) UN) . (du (SR SN) DUE (SR ADJ-V) DUE)]
RP:{PX+A UN+V}; fired: PX+A
      +u [NIL . NIL]
5 L [(un+du (SR ADJ) DUE) . (l (GG) NIL (ABBR) LITER)]
RP:{A+LY}; fired: none
       +l [(un (PX PREF) UN) . NIL]
       +l [NIL . NIL]
6       +y [(un+du (SR ADJ) DUE) . (ly (SX ADV) LY)]
RP:{A+LY}; fired: A+LY
("un/du/ly" (ADV) due)

14.4.5 Handling of ungrammatical input in LA-Morph

1 +a [NIL . (a (SQ) A)]
2  +b [NIL . NIL]
3   +l [NIL . (abl (SR ADJ-A) ABLE)]
RP:{V-START N-START A-START P-START}; fired: A-START
4     +e [(abl (SR ADJ) ABLE) . NIL]
      +e [NIL . (able (ADJ) ABLE)]
RP:{V-START N-START A-START P-START}; fired: none
5      +l [(abl (SR ADJ) ABLE) . NIL]
ERROR
Unknown word form: "ablely"
NIL

14.4.6 Parsing the simplex undulate

1 +u [NIL . NIL]
2  +n [NIL . (un (PX PREF) UN)]
RP:{V-START N-START A-START P-START}; fired: P-START
3   +d [(un (PX PREF) UN) . (d (GG) NIL)]
     +d [NIL . NIL]
4     +u [(un (PX PREF) UN) . (du (SR SN) DUE (SR ADJ-V) DUE)]
RP:{PX+A UN+V}; fired: PX+A
      +u [NIL . NIL]
5      +l [(un+du (SR ADJ) DUE) . (l (GG) NIL (ABBR) LITER)]
RP:{A+LY}; fired: none
       +l [(un (PX PREF) UN) . NIL]
       +l [NIL . NIL]
6       +a [(un+du (SR ADJ) DUE) . NIL]
        +a [NIL . NIL]
7        +t [(un+du (SR ADJ) DUE) . NIL]
         +t [NIL . (undulat (SR A V) UNDULATE)]
RP:{V-START N-START A-START P-START}; fired: V-START
8         +e [(un+du (SR ADJ) DUE) . (late (ADJ-AV) LATE (ADV) LATE)]
RP:{A+LY}; fired: none
          +e [(undulat (SR A V) UNDULATE) . NIL]
          +e [NIL . (undulate (SR NOM A V) UNDULATE)]
RP:{V-START N-START A-START P-START}; fired: V-START
("undulate" (NOM A V) UNDULATE)

14.5 Concatenation patterns

14.5.1 Concatenation patterns of English nouns

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14.5.2 Concatenation patterns of English verbs

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14.5.3 Concatenation patterns of adjective-adverbs

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14.5.4 Concatenation patterns of German nouns

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-s (-FG) (M-GP)  hAnd -e (P-D) -n (PD) (F)  frau  -en (P) (F) braten drangsal  (F) -e (P-D) -n (PD) (F)  kenntnis -se (P-D) -n (PD) (F)  mUtter - (P-D) -n (PD)

14.5.5 Category segments of German noun forms

MN  = Masculinum Nominativ  (Bote)
M-G  = Masculinum no Genitiv  (Tag)
-FG  = no Femininum Genitiv  (Tages, Kindes)
-FD  = no Femininum Dativ  (Schmerze, Kinde)

M-NP = Masculinum no Nominativ or Plural (Boten) M-GP = Masculinum no Genitiv or Plural (Braten) MGP = Masculinum Genitiv or Plural (Uhus) M-GP-D = Masculinum no Genitiv or Plural no Dativ (Gipfel)

F  = Femininum  (Frau)
N-G  = Neutrum no Genitiv  (Kind)
NG  = Neutrum Genitiv  (Kindes)
ND  = Neutrum Dativ  (Kinde)

N-GP = Neutrum no Genitiv or Plural (Leben) N-GP-D = Neutrum no Genitiv or Plural no Dativ (Wasser) NDP-D = Neutrum Dativ or Plural no Dativ (Schafe)

P  = Plural  (Themen)
P-D  = Plural no Dativ  (Leiber)
PD  = Plural Dativ  (Leibern)

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 251

15. Corpus analysis

15.1 Implementation and application of grammar systems

15.1.1 Parts of a grammar system

• Formal algorithm

• Linguistic method 15.1.2 Options for grammar system of word form recognition

• Formal algorithm: C- (Section 7.4), PS- (Section 8.1), or LA-grammar (Section 10.2).

• Linguistic method: Word form, morpheme, or allomorph method (cf. Section 13.5).

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 252

15.1.3 Minimal standard of well-defined grammar systems A grammar system is well-defined only if it simultaneously allows

1. different applications in a given implementation, and

2. different implementations in a given application. 15.1.4 Modularity of a grammar system

grammar system different applications

different implementations 15.1.5 Different implementations of LA-morphology

1988 in LISP (Hausser & Todd Kaufmann) 1990 in C (Hausser & Carolyn Ellis) 1992 in C, ‘LAMA’ (Norbert Bröker) 1994 in C, ‘LAP’ (Gerald Schüller) 1995 in C, ‘Malaga’ (Björn Beutel)

15.1.6 Structural principles common to different LA-Morph implementations

• Specification of the allo- (cf. 14.1.1) and the combi-rules (cf. 14.4.1) on the basis of patterns which are matched onto the input.

• Storage of the analyzed allomorphs in a trie structure and their left-associative lookup with parallel pursuit of alternative hypotheses (cf. Section 14.3).

• Modular separation of motor, rule components, and lexicon, permitting a simple exchange of these parts, for example in the application of the system to new domains or languages.

• Use of the same motor and the same algorithm for the combi-rules of the morphological, syntactic, and semantic components during analysis.

• Use of the same rule components for analysis and generation in morphology, syntax, and semantics.

15.2 Subtheoretical variants

15.2.1 Combinatorics of the German determiner der

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15.2.2 Agreement of adjective-ending with determiner

schöne  Baum  (cf. 15.2.1)^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  (M-G) der  (S3) (ER′ MN′ S3)  Baum ⇒ ein  schöner  ein schöner Baum (ER)

15.2.3 Exhaustive versus distinctive categorization in deriving der schönen Frauen

der  ^{schönen}^{6}  ^{19 →} ·^{114}  ^{5}  ·  4 →^{20}^{+}  ^{1}^{=} ^{134}^{Frauen}  ^{number of input pairs}^{multiplication of exhaustive readings}^{number of input pairs}^{der}  ^{schönen} ·  ·^{+}  ^{1}^{=}^{Frauen}^{3}  1 →^{3}  ^{2}  1 →  ^{5}^{2}  ^{multiplication of distinctive readings}

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 256

15.2.4 Representing lexical readings via different entries [der (E′ MN′ S3) DEF-ART] [der (EN′ F′ G&D) DEF-ART] [der (EN′ P-D′ G) DEF-ART]

15.2.5 Representing lexical readings via multicats [der ((E′ MN′ S3) (EN′ F′ G&D) (EN′ P-D′ G)) DEF-ART] 15.2.6 List-based matching (LAP)

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15.2.7 Feature-based matching (Malaga)

ss  nw  ss′
input-output:[\begin{matrix}mm1 = a \\ mm2 = b \\ mm3 = c \\ mm4 = d \end{matrix}] [mm5 = b]  [\begin{matrix}mm1 = a \\ mm3 = c \\ mm4 = d \end{matrix}]

rule pattern:[\begin{matrix}mm2 = b \\ X \end{matrix}] [mm5 = b] ⟹[X]

categorial operation

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 258

15.3 Building corpora

15.3.1 Text genres of the Brown and the LOB corpus

Brown LOB

A Press: reportage  44  44
B Press: editorial  27  27
C Press: reviews  17  17
D Religion  17  17
E Skills, trade, and hobbies  36  38
F Popular lore  48  44
G Belle lettres, biography, essays  75  77

H Miscellaneous (government documents, foundation records, industry reports,

college catalogues, industry house organ)  30  38
J Learned and scientific writing  80  80
K General fiction  29  29
L Mystery and detective fiction  24  24
MScience fiction  6  6
N Adventure and western fiction  29  29
P Romance and love story  29  29
R Humour  9  9
Total  500  500

15.3.2 Kučera & Francis’ desiderata for the construction of corpora

1. Definite and specific delimitation of the language texts included, so that scholars using the Corpus may have a precise notion of the composition of the material.

2. Complete synchronicity; texts published in a single calendar year only are included.

3. A predetermined ratio of the various genres represented and a selection of individual samples through a random sampling procedure.

4. Accessibility of the Corpus to automatic retrieval of all information contained in it which can be formally identified.

5. An accurate and complete description of the basic statistical properties of the Corpus and of several subsets of the Corpus with the possibility of expanding such analysis to other sections or properties of the Corpus as may be required.

15.3.3 Difficulties with achieving a representative and balanced corpus

‘Genre’ is not a well-defined concept. Thus genres that have been distinguished so far have been identified on a purely intuitive basis. No empirical evidence has been provided for any of the genre distinctions that have been made.

N. Oostdijk 1988

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 260

15.4 Distribution of word forms

15.4.1 Definition of rank The position of a word form in the frequency list 15.4.2 Definition of frequency class (F-class)

F-class =_{def} [frequency of types # number of types] There are much fewer F-classes in a corpus than ranks. In the BNC, for example, 655 270 ranks result in 5 301 F-classes. Thus, the number of the F-classes is only 0.8% of the number of ranks. Because of their comparatively small number the F-classes are well suited to bring the type-token correlation into focus.

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 261

15.4.3 Type-token distribution in the BNC (surface-based)

0.000152 0.000152 0.000152 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5293 5294 5295 5296 5297 5298 5299 5300  6577 7969 9973 12551 16701 24378 39691 85131 348145  59193 63752 69811 75306 83505 97512 119073 170262 348145  0.997620 1.208763 1.512736 1.903775 2.533260 3.697732 6.020456 12.912938 52.807732  0.065960 0.071040 0.077792 0.083915 0.093052 0.108660 0.132686 0.189727 0.387946 114731 108154 122700 132673 145224 161925 186303 225994 311125  114730 122699 132672 145223 161924 186302 225993 311124  0.000152 0.000152 0.000152 0.000152 1 1 1 1 4 5 17 38 517 1017 2171 3591 4536 5907 8332 10842 16012 44905  1017 2171  0.000152 3591  51 4536 5910 8336 10858 16049 45421  9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 beginning 1 (the) 2 (of) 3 (and) 4 (to) 5 (a) 6 (in) 7 (is) 8 (that) 9 (was)  5776399 2789563 2421306 2332411 1957293 1746891 893368 891498 839967  0.000152 0.000152 0.000152 0.000152 0.000152  6.436776 3.108475 2.698118 2.599060 2.181057 1.946601 0.995501 0.993417 0.935995 (the first 9 F-classes) 9  19 648 696  0.001368 %  21.895 % sums F-class  tokens  types-%  tokens-% start r  end r  types end  (the last 9 F-classes) 5292  551 116  1 086 559  83.595012 % 1.210778 % sums  659269 middle 1000 2001 3000 3500 4000 4500 4750 5000 5250  9608 4560 2521 1857 5228 4005 9367 11438 26367  0.000607 0.000758 0.002579 0.005764 0.078420  0.010706 0.005081 0.002809 0.002069 0.005826 0.004463 0.010438 0.012746 0.029381 (9 samples)  tokens per type: 1307 801 551 301

15.4.4 Correlation of type and token frequency

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15.4.5 Semantic significance The higher the freqency, the lower the semantic significance. Examples: the, of, and, to, a, in, that, was The lower the freqency, the higher the semantic significance. Examples: audiophile, butternut, customhouse, dustheap 15.4.6 Hapaxlegomena Word forms in a corpus which occur only once.

\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

FoCL, Chapter 15: Corpus analysis) 263

15.4.7 Zipf’s law

frequency · rank = constant 15.4.8 Illustration of Zipf’s law

3 251 ·  ^{=}^{2 870}  ^{9 330 370}^{word form}^{the}^{and}^{...}^{was}^{...}  ^{rank}^{1}^{2}^{9}^{holder}  ·  ^{7 559 703} ···  ^{frequency}^{5 776 399}^{2 789 563}^{839 967}  ^{=}^{=}^{=}^{=}  ^{constant}^{5 776 399}^{5 579 126}

15.5 Statistical tagging

15.5.1 Top of Brown corpus frequency list

69971-15-500 THE                      21341-15-500 IN
36411-15-500 OF                       10595-15-500 THAT
28852-15-500 AND                      10099-15-485 IS
26149-15-500 TO                        9816-15-466 WAS
23237-15-500 A                         9543-15-428 HE

The entry 9543-15-428 HE, for example, indicates that the word form HE occurs 9 543 times in the Brown corpus, in all 15 genres, and in 428 of the 500 sample texts.

15.5.2 Statistical tagging

is based on categorizing by hand – or half automatically with careful post-editing – a small part of the corpus, called the core corpus. The categories used for the classification are called tags or labels. After hand-tagging the core corpus, the probabilities of the transitions from one word form to the next are computed by means of Hidden Markov Models (HMMs).

15.5.3 Subset of the basic (C5) tagset

AJ0 Adjective (general or positive) (e.g. good, old, beautiful) CRD Cardinal number (e.g. one, 3, fifty-five, 3609) NN0 Common noun, neutral for number (e.g. aircraft, data, committee)

NN1 Singular common noun (e.g. pencil, goose, time, revelation) NN2 Plural common noun (e.g. pencils, geese, times, revelations) NP0 Proper noun (e.g. London, Michael, Mars, IBM)

UNC Unclassified items VVB The finite base form of lexical verbs (e.g. forget, send, live, return) VVD The past tense form of lexical verbs (e.g. forgot, sent, lived, returned)

VVG The -ing form of lexical verbs (e.g. forgetting, sending, living, returning)

VVI The infinitive form of lexical verbs (e.g. forget, send, live, return) VVN The past participle form of lexical verbs (e.g. forgotten, sent, lived, returned) VVZ The -s form of lexical verbs (e.g. forgets, sends, lives, returns)

15.5.4 Sample from the alphabetical word form list of the BNC

1 activ nn1-np0 1                8 activating aj0-nn1 6
1 activ np0 1                     47 activating aj0-vvg 22
2 activa nn1 1                   3 activating nn1-vvg 3
3 activa nn1-np0 1               14 activating np0 5
4 activa np0 2                   371 activating vvg 49
1 activatd nn1-vvb 1             538 activation nn1 93
21 activate np0 4                3 activation nn1-np0 3
62 activate vvb 42               2 activation-energy aj0 1
219 activate vvi 116             1 activation-inhibition aj0 1
140 activated aj0 48             1 activation-synthesis aj0 1
56 activated aj0-vvd 26         1 activation. nn0 1
52 activated aj0-vvn 34         1 activation/ unc 1
5 activated np0 3                282 activator nn1 30
85 activated vvd 56              6 activator nn1-np0 3
43 activated vvd-vvn 36         1 activator/ unc 1
312 activated vvn 144           1 activator/ unc 1
1 activatedness nn1 1           7 activator/tissue unc 1
88 activates vvz 60              61 activators nn2 18
5 activating aj0 5               1 activators np0 1

Each entry consists (i) of a number detailing the frequency of the tagged word form in the whole corpus, (ii) the surface of the word form, (iii) the label, and (iv) the number of texts in which the word form was found under the assigned label.

15.5.5 Error rates in statistical tagging

The error rate of CLAWS4 is quoted by Leech 1995 at 1.7%, which may seem very good. However, given that the last 1.2% of the low frequency tokens requires 83.6% of the types (cf. 15.4.4), an error rate of 1.7% may also represent a very bad result – namely that about 90% of the types are not analyzed or not analyzed correctly. This conclusion is born out by a closer inspection of sample 15.5.4.

15.5.6 Weaknesses of statistical tagging

1. The categorization is too unreliable to support rule-based syntactic parsing.

2. Word forms can be neither reduced to their base forms (lemmatization) nor segmented into their allomorphs or morphemes.

3. The overall frequency distribution analysis of a corpus is distorted by an artificial inflation of types (e.g., 37.5% in the BNC).

4. Even if the tagger is successfully improved as a whole, its results can never be more than probabilisticallybased conjectures.

FoCL, Chapter 16: Basic concepts of syntax) 268

16. Basic concepts of syntax

16.1 Delimitation of morphology and syntax

16.1.1 Correlation of LA-morphology and LA-syntax

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 ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} The  from^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  hyper  tension ed suffer over  indulg + +  er  s +  +  +

The tree structures of LA-morphology and LA-syntax both satisfy the Slim-theoretic principles of surface compositionality (S) and time-linear composition (l). However, their respective time-linear compositions occur in different phases.

\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

16.1.2 Treatment of idioms in morphology or syntax?

A syntactic treatment is generally motivated in idioms which (i) retain their compositional meaning as an option, (ii) are subject to normal variations of word order, and (iii) exhibit internal inflectional variation. Otherwise idioms should be handled in the lexicon (e.g. over-the-counter).

16.1.3 Correlation of morphology and syntax in different types of language

Some natural languages compose meaning_{1} mainly in the syntax (e.g. Chinese) and others mainly in morphology (e.g. Eskimo in which long chains of morphemes are concatenated into a single word form such as [a:wlis-ut-iss?ar-si-niarpu-na] I am looking for something suitable for a fish-line). This alternative exists also within a given natural language. For example, in English the complex concept denoted by the word form overindulgers may roughly be expressed analytically as people who eat and drink too much.

16.1.4 Combination principles of syntax

1. Valency

2. Agreement

3. Word order

FoCL, Chapter 16: Basic concepts of syntax) 270

16.2 Valency

16.2.1 The notions valency carrier and valency filler go back to the French linguist L. Tesnière 1959, who borrowed them from chemistry. The valency positions of a carrier must be filled, or canceled, by compatible fillers in order for an expression to be syntactically and semantically complete. 16.2.2 Coding the structure of valency carriers in LA-grammar Composite syntactic categories are defined as lists of category segments. For example, the English verb form ate is analyzed as follows. [ate (N′ A′ V) eat] 16.2.3 Carriers, fillers, and modifiers in CG and LAG

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C-grammar analysis^{Mary}^{(e)}  ^{ate}^{(e|(e|t))} ^{the}  ^{soup}^{(e|t)}  ^{slowly}  ^{Mary}^{(SNP)} ^{(N′ A′ V)}  ^{(SN)} ^{(ADV)}^{slowly}^{soup}^{ate}^{((e|t)|e)} ^{(e)}^{(e|t)}  ^{the}^{(SN′ SNP)}^{(A′ V)}^{(SN′ V)} ^{(V)} ^{(V)} LA-grammar analysis^{((e|t)|(e|t))}^{(e|t)}^{(t)}

16.2.4 Examples of different valency carriers in German

• the one-place verb form schläfst (sleep):

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} valency position^{(S2′}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} result segment^{V)}^{[schläfst}  ^{schlafen]}

• the two-place verb form liest (read):

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{A′} ^{V)}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{(S23′}  ^{lesen]} result segment valency positions^{[liest}

• the two-place verb form hilft (help):

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{helfen]}^{D′}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{(S3′}  result segment^{[hilft} valency positions^{V)}

• The three-place verb form gebt (give):

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{V)}^{(P2′}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}valency positions^{geben]}^{D′} ^{A′} result segment^{[gebt}

• The three-place verb form lehrte (taught):

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{A′}  ^{V)}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{A′} valency positions result segment^{lehren]}^{[lehrte} ^{(S13′}

• The one-place preposition nach (after):

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{(D′} valency position^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{ADP)}^{[nach}  result segment^{nach]}

16.2.5 Category structure of valency fillers and modifiers

[Bücher (P-D) buch] (books) [ihm (D) er] (him) [gestern (ADV) gestern] (yesterday)

Valency carriers may also function as valency fillers using their result segment, e.g V, as the filler segment. In this case, the segments representing valency positions are attached at the beginning of the category resulting from the composition.

FoCL, Chapter 16: Basic concepts of syntax) 274

16.3 Agreement

16.3.1 Agreement violation in English

*Every girls need a mother.

16.3.2 Identity-based agreement in a simple LA-syntactic analysis

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\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

FoCL, Chapter 16: Basic concepts of syntax) 275

16.3.3 An LA-grammar for 6.3.2 (LA-plaster)

LX =_{def} { [he (S3) *], [her (D) *], [this (A) *], [gives (S3′ D′ A′ V) *]} ST_{S} =_{def} { [(S3) {MAIN+FV} ] } MAIN+FV: (S3) (S3′ D′ A′ V) ⇒ (D′ A′ V) {FV+MAIN1} FV+MAIN1: (D′ A′ V) (D) ⇒ (A′ V) {FV+MAIN2} FV+MAIN2: (A′ V) (A) ⇒ (V) { } ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{F V +MAIN2} ] }

16.3.4 Example of an error in identity-based agreement

Error: ungrammatical continuation gives  ⇒ + (S3′ D′ A′ V) I (S1)

16.4 Free word order in German (LA-D1)

16.4.1 Word order variations in a declarative main clause of German

Der Mann gab der Frau den Strauß. (the man gave the woman the bouquet.) Der Mann gab den Strauß der Frau. (the man gave the bouquet the woman.) Der Frau gab der Mann den Strauß. (the woman gave the man the bouquet.) Der Frau gab den Strauß der Mann. (the woman gave the bouquet the man.) Den Strauß gab der Mann der Frau. (the bouquet gave the man the woman.) Den Strauß gab der Frau der Mann. (the bouquet gave the woman the man.)

16.4.2 Word order violation in German

*Der Mann der Frau gab einen Strauß. (the man the woman gave the bouquet.)

16.4.3 Free canceling of valency positions in a carrier of German

Den Strauß gab Den Strauß  (S3′ D′ V) +  gab  ⇒ (A)  (S3′ D′ A′ V)^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  Der Mann gab (S3′ A′ V) Der Mann  (D′ A′ V) (S3)  +  gab  ⇒ (S3′ D′ A′ V) Der Frau  Der Frau gab +  gab  ⇒ (S3′ D′ A′ V) (D)

16.4.4 German LA-grammar with partial free word order

LX =_{def} { [er (S3) *], [ihr (D) *], [das (A) *], [gab (S3′ D′ A′ V) *]} Variable definition: np ε {D, A}, with np′ correspondingly D′ or A′

x, y = .?.?.?.? (i.e. an arbitrary sequence up to length 4)

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(S3) {MAIN+FV} ] } MAIN+FV: (S3) (S3′ D′ A′ V)⇒ (D A V) {FV+MAIN} FV+MAIN: (x np′ y V) (np) ⇒ (x y V) {FV+MAIN} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{F V +MAIN} ] }

16.4.5 FV+MAIN matching a next word accusative 16.4.6 FV+MAIN matching a next word dative

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{er}  ^{gab}  ^{+}^{V)}^{input-output:}^{FV+MAIN - pattern:}  ^{(D′}  ^{er gab das}^{A′} np′  ^{V)}^{y}  ^{(A)} (np) ⇒ ^{(D′}^{(x}  ^{V)}^{V)}^{y}^{(x}  ^{das}

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{er}  ^{gab}  ^{+}^{V)}^{input-output:}^{FV+MAIN - pattern:}  ^{V)}^{y}  (np) ⇒ ^{(x}  ^{V)}^{V)}^{ihr}^{(D)}^{(x}  ^{(A′}^{y}^{er gab ihr}^{(D′} np′ ^{A′}

16.4.7 Reapplication of FV+MAIN

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{+}^{V)}^{V)}^{y}  (np) ⇒ ^{(x}  ^{V)}^{y}^{er gab ihr das}^{(V)}^{(A)}^{FV+MAIN - pattern:}^{input-output:}  ^{er}  ^{gab}  ^{ihr}^{(A′}^{(x} np′  ^{das}

16.4.8 German LA-grammar with free word order (LA-D1)

LX =_{def} { [er (S3) *], [ihr (D) *], [das (A) *], [gab (S3′ D′ A′ V) *]}

Variable definition: np ε {S3, D, A}, with np′ correspondingly S3′, D′ or A′

x, y = .?.?.?.? (i.e. an arbitrary sequence up to length 4)

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(np) {MAIN+FV} ] } MAIN+FV: (np) (x np′ y V) ⇒ (x y V) {FV+MAIN} FV+MAIN: (x np′ y V) (np) ⇒ (x y V) {FV+MAIN} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{F V +MAIN} ] }

16.4.9 Word order variants of LA-D1

er gab ihr das  das gab er ihr  ihr gab er das
er gab das ihr  das gab ihr er  ihr gab das er

16.4.10 Extending the lexion of LA-D1

[ich (S1) *], [du (S2) *], [wir (P1) *], [schlafe (S1′ V) *], [schläfst (S2′ V) *], [schläft (S3′ V) *], [schlafen (P1′ V) *], [lese (S1′ A′ V) *], [liest (S2′ A′ V) *], [las (S3′ A′ V) *], [helfe (S1′ D′ V) *], [hilfst (S2′ D′ V) *], [half (S3′ D′ V) *], [lehre (S1′ A′ A′ V) *], [lehrst (S2′ A′ A′ V) *], [lehrt (S3′ A′ A′ V) *], [gebe (S1′ D′ A′ V) *], [gibst (S2′ D′ A′ V) *].

16.4.11 Identity-based subject-verb agreement in German 16.4.12 Agreement violation in German

y^{(x} np′^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{(x}  ^{V)}^{V) ⇒}  ^{(V)}^{ich schlafe}^{FV+MAIN - pattern:}^{input-output:}  (np)  ^{V)}  ^{y}^{ich}^{(S1)}  ^{(S1′}^{+}  ^{schlafe}

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{FV+MAIN - pattern:}^{input-output:}  (np)  ^{V)}^{ich}^{(S1)}  ^{+}  np′  ^{Error:} ^{ungrammatical}^{continuation}^{schläfst}^{(S2′} ×  ^{V) ⇒}^{y}^{(x}

16.4.13 Derivation in LA-D1 (identity-based agreement)

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16.5 Fixed word order in English (LA-E1)

16.5.1 Fixed canceling of valency positions in a carrier of English

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  + + + Peter (SNP)  (N′ D′ A′ V) gave  ⇒ Peter gave  (V) (D′ A′ V)  Mary  ⇒ Peter gave Mary  books  ⇒  Peter gave Mary books Peter gave Mary Peter gave (D′ A′ V) (SNP)  (A′ V) (A′ V)  (PN)

16.5.2 English LA-grammar with fixed word order (LA-E1)

LX =_{def} { [Peter (SNP) *], [Mary (SNP) *], [books (PN) *],

[gave (N′ D′ A′ V) *]}

Variable definition: np ε {SNP, PN}, np′ ε {N′, D′, A′}, x = .?.?.?.? (i.e. an arbitrary sequence up to length 4)

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(x) {NOM+FV}] } NOM+FV: (np) (np′ x V)⇒ (y V) {FV+MAIN} FV+MAIN: (np′ x V) (np)⇒ (y V) {FV+MAIN} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{F V +MAIN}] }

16.5.3 Derivation in LA-E1 (definition-based agreement)

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FoCL, Chapter 17: LA-syntax for English) 286

17. LA-syntax for English

17.1 Complex fillers in pre- and postverbal position

17.1.1 Determiner and noun categories of English

categories  surfaces  examples of lemmata

singular and plural determiners:

(SN′ SNP)  a, an, every, the  [a (SN′ SNP) *]
(PN′ PNP)  all, several, the  [all (PN′ PNP) *]

singular and plural nouns:

(SN)  man, woman, book, car  [woman (SN) *]

(PN) men, women, books, cars [men (PN) *] 17.1.2 Complex noun phrase before the valency carrier

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the (SN′ SNP) the girl (SNP) the girl liked^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  (A′ V) FV+MAIN:  the girl liked John  John (SNP) girl (SN)  liked (N′ A′ V) (V) DET+N: NOM+FV:

17.1.3 Preverbal application of Det+N

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17.1.4 Application of NOM+FV to complex nominative NP

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17.1.5 FV+MAIN adding elementary object NP

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17.1.6 Complex noun phrase after valency carrier

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the (SN′ SNP) the girl (SNP) the girl liked (A′ V) girl^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  (SN) DET+N:  liked (N′ A′ V) DET+N: NOM+FV: FV+MAIN:  the girl liked a boy the girl liked a  a (SN′ SNP) (SN′ V)  boy (SN) (V)

17.1.7 FV+Main adding beginning of complex object NP

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{input-output:}  ^{+}^{the girl liked}  ^{x}^{(y}^{(A′} (np′  ^{V)}^{x} ^{V)}^{V)}^{FV+MAIN - pattern:}  ^{the girl liked a}^{(SN′} ^{SNP)} np) ⇒^{(y}  ^{(SN′}  ^{V)}^{a}

17.1.8 Postverbal application of Det+N

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{input-output:}  ^{the} ^{girl} ^{liked}  ^{a}  ^{+}^{DET+N - pattern:}  ^{boy}  ^{the girl liked a boy}^{(SN′}  ^{V)}  ^{(SN)}^{(n) ⇒}  ^{(V)}^{(V)} (n′  ^{x)}

17.1.9 DET+ADJ recursively adding adjectives

input-output: ^{the}  ^{+}  ^{beautiful}^{DET+ADJ - pattern:}^{(SN′ SNP)}  ^{(ADJ)}  ^{x)}^{(ADJ) ⇒} ^{the beautiful} ^{+}  ^{young}^{(ADJ)}^{(ADJ) ⇒}^{(SN′ SNP)}^{x)}^{x)} (n′  (n′  ^{…} (n′^{(SN′ SNP)}

17.1.10 Complex noun phrases with adjectives

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^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} the (SN′ SNP) DET+ADJ: DET+ADJ: DET+N:  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} NOM+FV:  book FV+MAIN: DET+ADJ: DET+ADJ: DET+N: (SN′ SNP) (ADJ) beautiful (SN′ SNP) (SNP) (A′ V) (SN′ V) (SN′ V) (SN′ V) (ADJ) young  (V) (SN) girl  (N′ A′ V) read  (SN′ SNP) the  (ADJ) wild  (ADJ) old  (SN)

17.2 English field of referents

17.2.1 Categories of nominal valency fillers in English

(SNP)  (NS3)^{he}^{she}^{him}^{her}  ^{me}^{I}  ^{we}  ^{they}^{it}  ^{us}  ^{them}^{you} nominative  singular  plural oblique  (NS1)  (NP-2)  (PNP)^{the boy}^{John}  ^{the boys} (PRO2) (OBQ)

17.2.2 Agreement of fillers and valency in main verbs

[give [gave [gives  Iwe, they the girls you the boy, John, it he, she  (SNP) (PNP) (PRO2)  (PRO2) (PNP) (SNP)  the boy, John, it (NS3)  the girls you (OBQ)  me, him, her, us, them (OBQ) D′  A′  V) *] V) *] V) *] (N-S3′ (N′ (NS3′ (PRO2) (PNP) (NP-2) (NS1) (SNP)

17.3 Complex verb forms

17.3.1 Nominative agreement of the auxiliary be

(NS1′ BE′ V) *] [am  (NS3) (SNP) the boy, John, it he, she (NS3′ BE′ V) *] [is  (PNP) (NP-2) (PRO2) the girls [was  we, they you (N-S13′ BE′ V) *] (N-S13′ BE′ V) *] [are [were (NS3) he, she (SNP) the boy, John, it (NS1) I (NS1) I (NS13′ BE′ V) *]

17.3.2 Complex verb forms of English

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{(NS3′ DO′ V)}  ^{(D′ A′ DO)}  ⇒^{has}  ^{has given}^{(NS3′ D′ A′ V)}^{given}^{is}  ^{giving}^{does}  ^{give}  ^{does give}^{(NS3′ HV′ V)}  ^{(D′ A′ HV)}  ⇒  ^{(NS3′ D′ A′ V)}^{(NS3′ BE′ V)}  ^{(D′ A′ BE)}  ⇒  ^{(NS3′ D′ A′ V)}^{is giving}

17.3.3 Comparing basic and complex verb forms of English

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17.3.4 AUX+NFV adding a nonfinite verb

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17.4 Finite state backbone of LA-syntax (LA-E2)

17.4.1 LA-E2: an English LA-syntax with complex NPs

LX =_{def} {[Julia (SNP) *], [John (SNP) *], [Suzy (SNP) *], [it (SNP) *], [boy (SN) *], [boys (PN) *], [girl (SN) *], [girls (PN) *], [book (SN) *], [books (PN) *], [a (SN′ SNP) *], [every (SN′ SNP) *], [the (SN′ SNP) *], [all (PN′ PNP) *], [several (PN′ PNP) *], [the (PN′ PNP) *] [I (NS1) *], [you (PRO2), [he (NS3) *], [she (NS3) *], [it (SNP) *], [we (NP-2) *], [they (NP-2) *], [me (OBQ) *], [him (OBQ) *], [her (OBQ) *], [us (OBQ) *], [them (OBQ) *] [am (NS1′ BE′ V) *], [is (NS3′ BE′ V) *], [are (N-S13′ BE′ V) *] [was (NS13′ BE′ V) *], [were (N-S13′ BE′ V) *] [have (N-S3′ HV′ V) *], [has (NS3′ HV′ V) *], [had (N′ HV′ V) *] [do (N-S3′ DO′ V) *], [does (NS3′ DO′ V) *], [did (N′ DO′ V) *] [give (N-S3′ D′ A′ V) *], [gives (NS3′ D′ A′ V), [gave (N′ D′ A′ V) *], [give (D′ A′ DO) *], [given (D′ A′ HV) *], [giving (D A BE) *] [like (N-S3′ A′ V) *], [likes (NS3′ A′ V), [liked (N′ A′ V) *] [like (A′ DO) *], [liked (A′ HV) *], [liking (A′ BE) *] [sleep (N-S3′ V) *], [sleeps (NS3′ V) *], [slept (N′ V) *] [sleep (DO) *], [slept (HV) *], [sleeping (BE) *]}

FoCL, Chapter 17: LA-syntax for English) 300

Variable definition:

np′ ε {N’, N-S3’, NS1’, NS3’, NS13’, N-S13’, D’, A’}, (valency positions) np ε {PRO2, NS1, NS3, NP-2, SNP, PNP, PN, OBQ} (valency fillers), and

if np = PRO2, then np′ ϵ {N′, N-S3′, N-S13′, D′, A′}, if np = NS1, then np′ ϵ {N′, N-S3′, NS1′, NS13′}, if np = NS3, then np′ ϵ {NS3′, NS13′}, if np = NP-2, then np′ ϵ { N′, N-S3′}, if np = SNP, then np′ ϵ { N′, NS3′, NS13′, D′, A′}, if np = PNP, then np′ ϵ {N′, N-S3′, N-S13′, D′, A′}, if np = OBQ, then np′ ϵ {D′, A′},

n ϵ {SN, PN} and n′ correspondingly SN′ or PN′, aux ϵ {DO, HV, BE} and aux′ correspondingly DO′, HV′ or BE′ x, y = .?.?.?.? (arbitrary sequence up to length 4)

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(x) {1 DET+ADJ, 2 DET+N, 3 NOM+FV}] }

DET+ADJ: (n′ x) (ADJ) ⇒ (n x) {4 DET+ADJ, 5 DET+N} DET+N: (n′ x) (n) ⇒ (x) {6 NOM+FV, 7 FV+MAIN} NOM+FV: (np) (np′ x V) ⇒ (x V) {8 FV+MAIN, 9 AUX+NFV}

FV+MAIN: (np′ x V) (y np) ⇒ (y x V){10 DET+ADJ, 11 DET+N, 12 FV+MAIN}

AUX+NFV: (aux′ V) (x aux) ⇒ (x V) {13 FV+MAIN} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{nom+fv}], [(V) rp_{aux+nfv}], [(V) rp_{fv+main}], [(V) rp_{det+n}]} 17.4.2 The finite state backbone of LA-E2

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 i  ii  iii^{AUX+NFV}  v  iv vi^{DET+ADJ} ^{DET+N}  ^{NOM+FV}  ^{FV+MAIN}^{1}  ^{2}^{4}  ^{5}^{3}  ^{6}^{7}  ^{8}^{9}^{11}^{10}  ^{12}^{13}^{= possible final state}^{= not a possible final state}  ^{(ii)}^{(iii)}^{(iv)}^{(v)}^{(vi)}  ^{7, 8, 12, 13}^{3,} ^{6}^{2,} ^{5,} ^{11}^{9}^{1,} ^{4,} ^{10}  ^{DET+N}^{NOM+FV}^{FV+MAIN}^{AUX+NFV}^{DET+ADJ}

FoCL, Chapter 17: LA-syntax for English) 302

17.4.3 Specifying the transition numbers in the input

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FoCL, Chapter 17: LA-syntax for English) 303

17.4.4 Syntactic analysis with transition numbers

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(SN′ SNP) (ADJ) beautiful The The beautiful  (ADJ) young The beautiful young (SN′ SNP)  (S3′ BE′ V) is The beautiful young girl (SNP) The beautiful young girl is (BE′ V) The beautiful young girl is reading (A′ V) 9 AUX+NFV: 13 FV+MAIN:  The beautiful young girl is reading a  (SN′ SNP) a (SN′ V)  (ADJ) wild 10 DET+ADJ:  The beautiful young girl is reading a wild (SN′ V) 4 DET+ADJ:  (ADJ) old The beautiful young girl is reading a wild old (SN′ V) 5 DET+N:  The beautiful young girl is reading a wild old book (V)  (SN) book (SN′ SNP)  (SN) girl  (A′ BE) reading 1 DET+ADJ: 4 DET+ADJ: 5 DET+N:

17.5 Yes/no-interrogatives (LA-E3) and grammatical perplexity

17.5.1 Expanding LA-E1 to LA-E1.5 handling complex NPs

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^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  i  ii  iii  ^{12}^{2}  ^{6}  ^{8}^{10}^{7}^{11}  iv vi^{DET+ADJ:}^{4} ^{1}  ^{5}^{DET+N}  ^{NOM+FV}  ^{FV+MAIN}^{3} LA-E1.5

FoCL, Chapter 17: LA-syntax for English) 305

17.5.2 Comparing declaratives and Yes/No-Interrogatives

Suzy does like the book. Does Suzy like the book? Suzy has liked the book. Has Suzy liked the book? Suzy is liking the book. Is Suzy liking the book?

17.5.3 Categorial operation of AUX+MAIN

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{input-output:}  ^{+}^{V)}^{V)}^{Does}^{(NS3′} ^{DO′}^{AUX+MAIN - pattern:}  (np′ aux′  ^{(x} np) ⇒^{(SNP)}^{Suzy}  ^{Does Suzy}^{(DO′} ^{VI)}^{(x} aux′ ^{VI)}

17.5.4 Categorial operation of IP

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{input-output:}  ^{Does Suzy sleep}^{(VI)} (vt)^{IP - pattern:}  ^{+}  ^{?}^{(VI′ INTERROG)} (vt′  ^{x) ⇒}  ^{(INTERROG)}^{(x)}^{Does Suzy sleep?}
\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

17.5.5 LA-E3 for English yes/no-interrogatives

LX = LX of LA-E2 plus {[. (V′ decl) *], [? (V′ interrog) *], [? (VI′ interrog)*]} Variable definitions = that of LA-E2 plus vt ε {V, VI},

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(x) {1 DET+ADJ, 2 DET+N, 3 NOM+FV, 4 AUX+MAIN}] }

DET+ADJ: (n′ x) (ADJ) ⇒ (n′ x) {5 DET+ADJ, 6 DET+N}

DET+N: (n′ x) (n) ⇒ (x) {7 NOM+FV, 8 FV+MAIN, 9 AUX+NFV, 10 IP} NOM+FV: (np) (np′ x V) ⇒ (x V) {11 FV+MAIN, 12 AUX+NFV, 13 IP} FV+MAIN: (np′ x V) (y np) ⇒ (y x V) {14 DET+ADJ, 15 DET+N, 16 FV+MAIN, 17 IP}

AUX+NFV: (aux′ V) (x aux) ⇒ (x V) {18 FV+MAIN, 19 IP} AUX+MAIN:(np′ aux′ V) (x np) ⇒ (x aux′ VI) {20 AUX+NFV, 21 DET+ADJ, 22 DET+N} IP: (vt) (vt′ x) ⇒ (x) {} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(decl) rp_{ip}], [(interrog) rp_{ip}]} 17.5.6 The finite state backbone of LA-E3

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 i  iii  v  iv vi  ^{NOM+FV}  ^{FV+MAIN} vii  ^{AUX+NFV}^{ii}^{iii}^{iv}  ^{DET+N}^{DET+ADJ}^{AUX+MAIN}  ^{IP} ii  viii^{1}  ^{2}  ^{3}^{4}^{5}  ^{6}  ^{7}  ^{9} ^{8}^{10}  ^{11}^{12}^{14}  ^{15}  ^{17} ^{16}^{18}  ^{19}^{20}^{21} ^{22}  ^{13}^{2, 6, 15, 22}  ^{DET+N}^{NOM+FV}^{3, 7}^{8, 11, 16, 18}  ^{FV+MAIN}  ^{AUX+NFV}^{DET+ADJ}^{AUX+MAIN}^{9, 12, 20}^{1, 5, 14, 21}^{4}^{vii}^{viii} ^{10, 13, 17, 19} ^{IP}^{vi}^{v}

17.5.7 Perplexity

Perplexity is, crudely speaking, a measure of the size of the set of words from which the next word is chosen given that we observe the history of the spoken words.

S. Roukos 1995

18. LA-syntax for German

18.1 Standard procedure of syntactic analysis

18.1.1 Differences between natural languages

Natural languages are all based on the same time-linear derivation order. They differ ony in their language specific handling of

• agreement

• word order

• valency structure (lexicalization)

18.1.2 Phase I of standard procedure

1. Formal treatment of declarative main clauses with elementary finite verbs and elementary nominal fillers determines the basic typological properties of the natural language,

2. Extension to complex nominal fillers requires treatment of the internal and the external agreement restrictions of derived noun phrases, and the time-linear derivation of complex fillers in pre- and postverbal position.

3. The extension to complex verb phrases treats complex tenses and modalities.

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 310

18.1.3 What has to be done before Phase II A theoretically well-founded semantic and pragmatic interpretation for the syntactic analysis developed so far. 18.1.4 Phase II of the standard procedure The syntactic analyses of the second phase should be developed directly out of the semantic and pragmatic interpretation, and be provided for both, the speaker and the hearer mode. Topics: (i) addition of basic and derived modifiers ranging from adverbs over prepositional phrases to subordinate clauses, (ii) treatment of sentential subjects and objects including infinitive constructions, (iii) handling of different syntactic moods like interrogative and different verbal moods like passive, and (iv) treatment of conjunctions including gapping constructions.

18.1.5 Distinctive categorization of determiners

definite article indefinite article

[der (E′ MN′ S3)  [ein  (ER′ MN′ S3)

(EN′ F′ G&D) (ES′ N-G′ S3&A) INDEF-ART]

(EN′ P-D′ G)  DEF-ART]  [eines (EN′ -FG′ G)  INDEF-ART]
[des (EN′ -FG′ G)  DEF-ART]  [einem (EN′ -FD′ D)  INDEF-ART]
[dem (EN′ -FD′ D)  DEF-ART]  [einen (EN′ M-N′ A)  INDEF-ART]
[den (EN′ M-N′ A)  [eine  (E′ F′ S3&A)  INDEF-ART]
(EN′ PD′ D)  DEF-ART]  [einer (EN′ F′ G&D) INDEF-ART]

[das (E′ N-G′ S3&A) DEF-ART] [die (E′ F′ S3&A)

(EN′ P-D′ P3&A) DEF-ART] 18.1.6 Categorial operation of DET+ADJ

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18.1.7 Categorial operation of DET+N

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{input-output:}  ^{Baum}^{(E′} ^{MN′} ^{S3)}  ^{(n) ⇒} (adj′ n′ ^{x)}^{DET+N - pattern:}  ^{der schöne}  ^{(S3)}^{der schöne Baum}^{(x)}^{(M-G)}

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 313

18.1.8 Pre- and postverbal derivation of noun phrases

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der  schöne  grüne  Baum  gefiel  der  jungen  Frau der schöne der schöne grüne der schöne grüne Baum der schöne grüne Baum gefiel der schöne grüne Baum gefiel der der schöne grüne Baum gefiel der jungen der schöne grüne Baum gefiel der jungen Frau (E′ MN′ S3) (E)  (E′ )  (M-G)  (S3′ D′ V) (EN′ F′ G&D) (EN)  (F) (E′ MN′ S3) (E′ MN′ S3) 1 DET+ADJ: 4 DET+ADJ: 5 DET+N:  (S3) 6 MAIN+FV:  (D′ V) 8 FV+MAIN:  (EN′ F′ V) 10 DET+ADJ:  (EN′ F′ V) (V)

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 314

18.2 German field of referents (LA-D2)

18.2.1 Traditional paradigms of German noun phrases

Masculinum Femininum Neutrum Plural

Nominative der Mann  die Frau  das Kind  die Männer, etc.
Genitive  des Mannes der Frau  des Kindes  der Männer, etc.
Dative  dem Mann  der Frau  dem Kind  den Männern, etc.
Accusative  den Mann  die Frau  das Kind  die Männer, etc.

18.2.2 Distinctive categories of nominal fillers (German)

.^{.}  ^{.}^{.}  ^{sie}^{die Frau}^{das Kind}^{es}^{(S3&A)}^{ich} ^{er} ^{Peter}^{(S1)} ^{(S3)} ^{(S3&}^{A&}^{D)} ^{desMannes}  ^{(S3&P3}^{&A)}^{du}^{(S2)}  ^{der Frau}^{(G&D)}  ihr^{wir}^{die Männer}^{die Frauen}^{die Kinder}^{(P3&A)}  ^{(P1)}  ^{(P2)}^{uns}  ^{euch}^{(D&A)}^{den Männern}^{den Frauen}^{den Kindern}^{ihnen} ihr^{ihrer (G)}  ^{der Männer}^{der Frauen}^{der Kinder}  ^{eurer}^{unserer} N A D G ^{dir} ^{mir} ^{ihm}^{(D) demMann demKind}^{(A)denMann}^{ihn}^{mich}^{dich}  Singular  Plural^{deiner} ^{meiner} ^{des Kindes}^{seiner}

18.2.3 Centering and distance in fields of reference

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 ^{wir}  ^{ihr}^{SP3}^{S1}  ^{P1}^{S2}  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 ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{he}  ^{I}  ^{you}  ^{we}  ^{they}^{S3}  ^{S1}  ^{SP2}  ^{P1}  ^{P3}^{D3}^{D2}^{D1}  English  German

18.2.4 Agreement of nominal fillers and verbal valencies

[gebe  (S1′ (S1)  (A) A′ D′  V) *]  [gibst (S2′ (S2′ (S2) * * V) V) *] *] [gabst [geben [gaben (P13′ (P13′ * * V) V) *] *] (D)  (S3&P3&A) [gebt [gabt  (P2′ (P2′ * * V) V) *] *] (P1) (P3&A) (D&A) (S3&D&A) (P2&D) (S3&P3&A)  (P2) (P2&D)  [gibt (S3′ * V) *] (S3) (S3&A) (S3&D&A) (S3&P3&A) [gab  (S13′ * V) *] (S1) (S3) (S3&A) (S3&D&A)

18.2.5 German LA-grammar handling complex fillers (LA-D2)

LX = LX of LA-D1 plus the determiners defined in 18.1.5, the nouns defined in 14.5.1, 14.5.2, and the following pronouns

[ich (S1) *], [du (S2) *], [er (S3) *], [es (S3&A) *], [wir (P1) *], [ihr (P2&D) *], [sie (S3&P3&A) *], [deiner (G) *], [uns (D&A) *], [euch (D&A) *], [mir (D) *], [dir (D) *], [ihm (D) *], [mich (A) *], [dich (A) *], [ihn (A) *]

plus adjectives with comparation

[schöne (E) *]  [schönere (E) *]  [schönste (E) *]

[schönen (EN) *] [schöneren (EN) *] [schönsten (EN) *] [schöner (ER) *] [schönerer (ER) *] [schönster (ER) *] [schönes (ES) *] [schöneres (ES) *] [schönstes (ES) *]

plus finite main verb forms of differing valency structures

[gebe (S1′ D′ A′ V) *]  [lese (S1′ A′ V) *]  [schlafe (S1′ V) *]
[gibst (S2′ D′ A′ V) *]  [liest (S23′ A′ V) *]  [schläfst (S2′ V) *]
[gibt (S3′ D′ A′ V) *]  [lesen (P13′ A′ V) *]  [schläft (S3′ V) *]

[geben (P13′ D′ A′ V) *] [lest (P2′ A′ V) *] [schlafen (P13′ V) *]

[gebt (P2′ D′ A′ V) *]  [las (S13′ A′ V) *]  [schlaft (P2′ V) *]
[gab (S13′ D′ A′ V) *]  [last (S2P2′ A′ V) *]  [schlief (S13′ V) *]
[gabst (S2′ D′ A′ V) *]  [lasen (P13′ A′ V) *]  [schliefst (S2′ V) *]

[gaben (P13′ D′ A′ V) *] [schliefen (P13′ V) *] [gabt (P2′ D′ A′ V) *] [schlieft (P2′ V) *]

variable definition np ϵ {S1, S2, S3, P1, P2, P2&D, G, G&D, D, A, S3&A, S3&D&A, D&A,

P3&A, S3&P3&A} np′ ϵ {S1′, S13′, S2′, S23′, S2P2′, S3′, P13′, P2′, G′, D′, A′} and if np ϵ {G, D, A}, then np′ is correspondingly G′, D′, or A′

if np = P1, then np′ = P13′ if np = S1, then np′ ϵ {S1′, S13′} if np = S2, then np′ ϵ {S2′, S23′} if np = S3, then np′ ϵ {S3′, S23′} if np = P3&A, then np′ ϵ {P13′, A′} if np = P2&D, then np′ ϵ {P2′, D′} if np = G&D, then np′ ϵ {G′, D′} if np = D&A, then np′ ϵ {D′, A′} if np = S3&A, then np′ ϵ {S3′, S23′, A′} if np = S3&D&A, then np′ ϵ {S3′, S23′, D′, A′} if np = S3&P3&A, then np′ ϵ {S3′, S23′, P13′, A′}

n ϵ {MN, M-G, M-NP, M-GP, MGP, M-GP-D, F, N-G, -FG, -FD, N-GP, N-GP-D,

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 320

NDP-D, P, P-D, PD}, n′ ϵ {MN′, M-N′, F′, N-G′, -FG′, -FD′, P-D′, PD′}, and

if n ϵ {MN, -FG, -FD, F, P-D, PD}, then n′ is corresponding if n = M-G, then n′ ϵ {MN′, M-N′} if n = M-NP, then n′ ϵ {-FG′, -FD′, P-D′, PD′ } if n = M-GP, then n′ ϵ {MN′, -FD′, M-N′, P-D′, PD′} if n = MGP, then n′ ϵ {-FG′, P-D′, PD′} if n = M-GP-D, then n′ ϵ {MN′, -FD′, M-N′, P-D′} if n = N-G, then n′ ϵ {N-G′, -FG′, -FD′} if n = N-GP, then n′ ϵ {N-G′, -FG′, -FD′, P-D′, PD′} if n = N-GP-D, then n′ ϵ {N-G′, -FG′, -FD′, P-D′} if n = NDP-D, then n′ ϵ {-FD′, P-D′} if n = P, then n′ ϵ {P-D′, PD′}

adj ϵ {e, en, es, er} and adj′ is corresponding

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(x) {1 DET+ADJ, 2 DET+N, 3 MAIN+FV}] }

DET+ADJ: (adj′ x) (adj) ⇒ (adj′ x) {4 DET+ADJ, 5 DET+N} DET+N: (adj′ n′ x) (n) ⇒ (x) {6 MAIN+FV, 7 FV+MAIN} MAIN+FV: (np) (x np′ y V) ⇒ (x y V) {8 FV+MAIN} FV+MAIN: (x np′ y V) (z np) ⇒ (z x y V){9 FV+MAIN, 10 DET+ADJ, 11 DET+N} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{MAIN+F V}], [(V) rp_{F V +MAIN}], [(V) rp_{DET +N}] }

18.3 Verbal positions in English and German

18.3.1 Finite verb position in declarative main clauses

English: post-nominative German: verb-second

1. Julia read a book Julia las ein Buch

2. *a book read Julia Ein Buch las Julia

3. Yesterday Julia read a book *Gestern Julia las ein Buch

4. *Yesterday read Julia a book Gestern las Julia ein Buch

5. Julia yesterday read a book *Julia gestern las ein Buch

6. *While Mary slept, read Julia a book Als Maria schlief, las Julia ein Buch

7. While Mary slept, Julia read a book *Als Maria schlief, Julia las ein Buch

18.3.2 Nonfinite main verb position in declarative main clauses

English: contact position German: distance position

1. Julia has slept Julia hat geschlafen

2. Julia has read a book *Julia hat gelesen ein Buch

3. *Julia has a book read Julia hat ein Buch gelesen

4. Yesterday Julia has read a book *Gestern Julia hat gelesen ein Buch

5. *Yesterday has Julia a book read Gestern hat Julia ein Buch gelesen

6. Julia has given M. a book yesterday *Julia hat gegeben M. ein Buch gestern

7. *Julia has M. yesterday a book given Julia hat M. gestern ein Buch gegeben

18.3.3 Satzklammer in German

Julia has the offer of the opposing party yesterday afternoon

Julia hat das Angebot der Gegenseite gestern nachmittag abgelehnt.  declined
verworfen.  refused
kritisiert.  criticized
zurückgewiesen. rejected

18.3.4 Verb position in subordinate clauses

English: post-nominative German: clause final

1. before Julia slept bevor Julia schlief

2. before Julia had slept *bevor Julia hatte geschlafen

3. *before Julia slept had bevor Julia geschlafen hatte

4. before Julia bought the book *bevor Julia kaufte das Buch

5. *before Julia the book bought bevor Julia das Buch kaufte

6. before Julia had bought the book *bevor Julia hatte gekauft das Buch

7. *before the book a man bought bevor das Buch ein Mann kaufte

18.4 Complex verbs and elementary adverbs (LA-D3)

18.4.1 LA-paradigms of German auxiliaries and modals

[bin (S1′ S′ V) *]  [habe (S1′ H′ V) *]  [kann (S13′ M′ V) *]
[bist (S2′ S′ V) *]  [hast (S2′ H′ V) *]  [kannst (S2′ M′ V) *]
[ist (S3′ S′ V) *]  [hat (S3′ H′ V) *]  [können (P13′ M′ V) *]
[sind (P13′ S′ V) *]  [haben (P13′ H′ V) *]  [könnt (P2′ M′ V) *]
[seid (P2′ S′ V) *]  [habt (P2′ H′ V) *]  [konnte (S13′ M′ V) *]
[war (S13′ S′ V) *]  [hatte (S13′ H′ V) *]  [konntest (S2′ M′ V) *]
[warst (S2′ S′ V) *]  [hattest (S2′ H′ V) *]  [konnten (P13′ M′ V) *]
[waren (P13′ S′ V) *]  [hatten (P13′ H′ V) *]  [konntet (P2′ M′ V) *]

[wart (P2′ S′ V) *] [hattet (P2′ H′ V) *] 18.4.2 Complex verb forms of German

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}ist  begegnet  ist begegnet (S3′ S′ V)  (D′ S)  ⇒  (S3′ D′ V)^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} will  sehen (S3′ M′ V)  (S3′ D′ A′ V) (A′ M)  ⇒  will sehen (S3′ A′ V)^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} hat  gegeben (S3′ H′ V)  (D′ A′ H)  ⇒  hat gegeben

18.4.3 Declarative main clauses with a finite main verb

Die Frau gab dem Kind den Apfel Dem Kind gab die Frau den Apfel

18.4.4 Declarative main clauses with an auxiliary construction

Die Frau hat dem Kind den Apfel gegeben Dem Kind hat die Frau den Apfel gegeben

\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

18.4.5 +FV alternatives of adding the auxiliary

(nom′ ^{H′} aux′ ^{V) ⇒}^{V)}^{(S3′}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{+}^{1.}  ^{input-output:}  ^{Die Frau}  ^{Die Frau hat}^{(H′} (aux′^{hat}^{(S3&A)} (nom)^{rule pattern +FV:}  ^{+}^{2.}  ^{input-output:}  ^{Dem Kind}  ^{hat}^{(S3′} ^{H′} ^{V)} aux′^{(y ADV)}  ^{V) ⇒}^{(x}^{(D)} (obq)^{rule pattern +FV:}  ^{Dem Kind hat}^{(D} ^{S3′} ^{H′} ^{V)}^{V)}^{V)}^{V)}^{x} aux′ (obq′^{+}^{3.}  ^{input-output:}  ^{(D′}^{(x}  aux)^{A′} ^{H)}  (nom′ aux′ ^{V) ⇒}  ^{(S3′} ^{D′} ^{A′} ^{V)}^{V)} (nom′  ^{x}^{Gegeben hat}^{Gegeben}  ^{hat}^{rule pattern +FV:}  ^{+}^{rule pattern +FV:}^{5.}  ^{input-output:}  ^{Gestern}  ^{hat}^{H′} ^{V)}^{(S3′}  ^{Gestern hat}^{H′} ^{V)}^{V) ⇒}^{(S3′}^{(x}  ^{H′} ^{V)}^{V)}^{(S3′} ^{x}^{(y}^{(ADV)}

18.4.6 Extending MAIN+FV into +FV using clauses

+FV: 1. (nom)(nom′ aux′ V) ⇒ (aux′ V)

2. (obq)(x aux′ V) ⇒ (obq x aux′ V)

3. (x aux)(nom′ aux′ V) ⇒ (nom′ x V)

4. (np)(x np′ y V) ⇒ (x y V)

5. (y ADV)(x V) ⇒ (y x V) {+MAIN, +NFV, +FV, +IP} 18.4.7 +MAIN Alternatives after the auxiliary

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.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{+}^{2.}  ^{input-output:}  ^{Die Frau hat}  ^{Die Frau hat dem}^{(H′} (aux′  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{V)}^{rule pattern +MAIN:}  ^{V)}  ^{V)}^{V)}^{H′} aux′^{D)} obq) ⇒^{(y}^{(EN′} ^{-FD′}  ^{(y}^{(EN′} ^{-FD′} ^{D} obq^{dem}

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} (D S3′ H′ x  V) V)^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} (x  + 4.  input-output: rule pattern +MAIN:  Dem Kind hat  gestern  Dem Kind hat gestern (y (ADV) (y ADV) ⇒ (D S3′ H′ V) V)

18.4.8 Extending FV+MAIN into +MAIN using clauses

+MAIN: 1. (x nom′ y aux′ V)(z nom) ⇒ (z x y aux′ V)

2. (x aux′ V)(y obq) ⇒ (y obq x aux′ V)

3. (x np′ y V)(z np) ⇒ (z x y V)

4. (x V)(y ADV) ⇒ (y x V)

{+ADJ, +N, +MAIN, +NFV, +FV, +IP}

18.4.9 Categorial operation of +NFV

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18.4.10 German grammar handling complex verb forms (LA-D3)

LX = LX of LA-D2 plus auxiliaries defined in 18.4.1, plus nonfinite main verb form of 18.4.2, plus adverbials [gestern (ADV) *], [hier (ADV) *], [jetzt (ADV) *], plus punctuation signs [. (V′ DECL) *], [? (VI′ INTERROG) *], [? (V′ INTERROG) *]

variable definition = variable definition of LA-D2 plus nom ϵ np \ {D, A, D&A} nominative filler^{1} nom′ ϵ np \ {D, A} nominative valency positions obq ϵ {D, A, D&A} oblique filler aux ϵ {H, B, M}, auxiliaries and modals vt ϵ {V, VI}, mood marker sm ϵ {DECL, INTERROG}, sentence mood

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(x) {1 +ADJ, 2 +N, 3 +FV, 4 +NFV}] }

+ADJ: (adj′ x) (adj) ⇒ (adj x) {5 +ADJ, 6 +N}

+N:  (adj′ n′ x) (n) ⇒ (x)  {7 +FV, 8 +MAIN, 9 +NFV, 10 +IP}

+FV: (nom)(nom′ aux′ V) ⇒ (aux′ V)

(obq)(x aux′ V) ⇒ (obq x aux′ V) (x aux)(nom′ aux′ V) ⇒ (nom′ x V) (np)(x np′ y V) ⇒ (x y V)

(ADV)(x V) ⇒ (x V) {11 +MAIN, 12 +NFV, 13 +IP}

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 331

+MAIN: (x nom′ y aux′ V)(z nom) ⇒ (z x y aux′ V)

(x aux′ V)(y obq)⇒ (y obq x aux′ V)

(x np′ y V)(z np) ⇒ (z x y V)

(x V)(y ADV) ⇒ (y x V) {14 +ADJ, 15 +N, 16 +MAIN, 17 +NFV,

18 +FV, 19 +IP}

+NFV: (x aux′ V)(x^{∼} aux)

(x = x^{∼})  ⇒ (V)  {20 +IP}
+IP:  (vt) (vt′ sm)  ⇒ (sm)  {}

ST_{F} =_{def} { [(sm) rp_{+ipt}]}

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 332

18.4.11 Declarative with dative preceding auxiliary

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^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} dem  Kind (EN′ -FD′ D) (N-G) dem Kind (D) dem Kind hat (D S3′ H′ V) (S3′ H′ V) hat  (E′ F′ S3) die dem Kind hat die (E′ F′ D H′ V) dem Kind hat die Frau (D H′ V)  (F) Frau dem Kind hat die Frau gestern (D H′ V)  den dem Kind hat die Frau gestern den (EN′ M-N′ A D H′ V) dem Kind hat die Frau gestern den Apfel (A D H′ V) dem Kind hat die Frau gestern den Apfel gegeben (V) dem Kind hat die Frau gestern den Apfel gegeben . (DECL)  (EN′ M-N′ A) (M-G) Apfel  . (ADV) gestern  (D′ A′ H) gegeben (V′ DECL) 2 +N: 7 +FV: 11 +MAIN: 15 +N: 8 +MAIN: 16 +MAIN: 15 +N: 9 +NFV:

18.5 Interrogatives and subordinate clauses (LA-D4)

18.5.1 Interrogative with and without auxiliary

1. Hat die Frau dem Kind gestern den Apfel gegeben ?

(Has the woman the child yesterday the apple given ?)

2. Hat dem Kind gestern die Frau den Apfel gegeben?

3. Hat gestern die Frau dem Kind den Apfel gegeben?

4. Gab die Frau dem Kind gestern den Apfel ?

(Gave the woman the child yesterday the apple ?)

5. Gab gestern die Frau dem Kind den Apfel?

18.5.2 ?+MAIN starting an interrogative main clause

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18.5.3 Subordinate clauses with and without auxiliary

1. Als die Frau dem Kind gestern den Apfel gegeben hat

(When the woman the child yesterday the apple given has)

2. Als dem Kind gestern die Frau den Apfel gegeben hat

3. Als gestern die Frau dem Kind den Apfel gegeben hat

4. Als die Frau dem Kind gestern den Apfel gab

(When the woman the child yesterday the apple gave)

5. Als gestern die Frau dem Kind den Apfel gab

18.5.4 +MAIN starting an adverbial subclause

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18.5.5 +FV concluding subclause with finite main verb

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18.5.6 Beginning of an adverbial subclause in postverbal position

Julia las,  +  als (A′ V)  (V′ ADV) ⇒  Julia las, als  (S3&D&A V′ A′ V) + Maria (V′ A′ V)  (S3&D&A) ⇒  Julia las, als Maria

18.5.7 Completion of an adverbial subclause in postverbal position

+ Julia las, als Maria  schlief (S3&D&A V′ A′ V)  (A′ V) (S3′ V) ⇒  Julia las, als Maria schlief,

18.5.8 Nesting of adverbial subclauses in preverbal position

(A S3&D&A V′ S3&D&A V′ ADV) Als Maria, obwohl Julia die Zeitung  las (S3′ A′ V) ⇒ Als Maria, obwohl Julia die Zeitung las, (S3&D&A V′ ADV) +

18.5.9 +NFV adds nonfinite main verb to subclause

y hca)^{ADV)}^{als dem Kind die Frau den Apfel}^{V′}^{V′}^{D}^{S3&A}^{(x1} nom ^{x2}^{(A}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} ⇒  ^{als dem Kind die Frau den Apfel gegeben}^{V′}^{V′}^{(S3&A} (nom ^{H} aux  ^{y} hca)^{ADV)}^{output:}  ^{+} ^{gegeben}^{A′}^{(x∼}  ^{H)} aux)^{(D′}^{rule pattern +NFV:}^{1}  ^{input:}

18.5.10 +FV concludes subclause with finite auxiliary

y hca)^{ADV)}^{V′}^{V′}^{(S3&A} (nom aux^{H}  ^{(S3′} (nom′ ⇒  aux′^{H′} ^{V)}^{V)}^{als dem Kind die Frau den Apfel gegeben hat}^{(ADV)}^{(y} hca)^{output:}  ^{als dem Kind die Frau den Apfel gegeben}^{rule pattern +FV:}  ^{+}^{1.}  ^{input:}  ^{hat}

18.5.11 LAG handling interrogative and adverbial clauses (LA-D4)

LX = LX of LA-D3 plus subordinating conjunctions

[als (V′ ADV) *], [nachdem (V′ ADV) *], [obwohl (V′ ADV) *] variable definition = variable definition of LA-D3 plus hca ϵ {V, VI, ADV}

ST_{S} =_{def} { [(x) {1 +ADJ, 2 +N, 3 +FV, 4 +MAIN, 5 ?+MAIN}] }

+N:  (adj′ n′ x) (n) ⇒ (x)  {6 +FV, 7 +MAIN, 8 +NFV, 9 +IP}

+ADJ: (adj′ x) (adj) ⇒ (adj′ x) {10 +ADJ, 11 +N} ?+MAIN: (nom′ aux′ V)(z nom) ⇒ (z aux′ VI)

(nom′ aux′ V)(y obq) ⇒ (y obq nom′ aux′ VI)

(x np′ y V)(z np) ⇒ (z x y VI)

(x V)(y ADV) ⇒ (y x VI) {12 +ADJ, 13 +N, 14 +MAIN, 15 +NFV, 16 +IP}

+FV: (nom aux V′ y hca) (nom′ aux′ V) ⇒ (y hca)

(x V′ y hca)( x^{∼} V)

[x = x^{∼}] ⇒ (y hca) (nom)(nom′ aux′ V) ⇒ (aux′ V) (obq)(x aux′ V) ⇒ (obq x aux′ V) (x aux)(np′ aux′ V) ⇒ (x np′ V) (np)(x np′ y V) ⇒ (x y V)

(ADV)(x V) ⇒ (x V) {17 +MAIN, 18 +NFV, 19 +FV, 20 +IP}

+MAIN: (x nom′ y aux′ V)(z nom) ⇒ (z x y aux′ V)

FoCL, Chapter 18: LA-syntax for German 339

(x aux′ V)(y obq)⇒ (y obq x aux′ V) (x np′ y V)(z np) ⇒ (z x y V) (x V′ y hca)(z np) ⇒ (z np x V′ y hca)

(x V)(y ADV) ⇒ (y x V) {21 +ADJ, 22 +N, 23 +MAIN, 24 +NFV, 25 +FV, 26 +IP}

+NFV: (x1 nom x2 V′ y hca)( x^{∼} aux)

[(x1 ∘ x2) = x^{∼}] ⇒ (nom aux V′ y hca) (x aux′ V)(x^{∼} aux) ⇒(V) {27 +FV, 28 +IP}

+IP: (vt) (vt′ sm) ⇒ (sm) {} ST_{F} =_{def} { [(V) rp_{+ipt}], [(VI) rp_{+ipt}]} 18.5.12 The finite state backbone of LA-D4

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i  v  iv vi vii  ii  viii^{+ADJ}  ^{+N}  ^{+FV}  iii ^{+MAIN}  ^{IP}^{1}  ^{2}^{3}  ^{6}  ^{7}  ^{+NFV}^{iv}^{ii}^{iii}  ^{8}  ^{9}^{11}^{12}  ^{13}  ^{14}  ^{15}  ^{16}  ^{18}^{19}  ^{20}^{21}  ^{26}^{27}  ^{23}^{24}^{22}^{4}^{v.}  ^{25}^{17}  ^{28}^{vi.}^{vii:}^{viii:}^{10}^{?+MAIN}  ^{5}  ^{3}^{2,} ^{11, 13,} ^{19, 22,}^{3,} ^{6,} ^{8,}^{17,} ^{19,} ^{27}^{4,} ^{14,} ^{7,} ^{23,} ^{24,} ^{25}^{8,} ^{15,} ^{18,}  ^{1,} ^{10,} ^{12,} ^{21,}^{5,}^{9,} ^{16,} ^{20,} ^{26,}^{+N}^{+MAIN}^{+FV}^{+NFV}  ^{+ADJ}^{+MAIN}^{+IP}

18.5.13 Verification of grammars

1. Syntactic verification The formal grammars for English and German developed so far should be implemented as parsers and tested automatically on increasing sets of positive and negative test sentences.

2. Morphological and lexical verification The word form recognition of these grammars should be changed from the preliminary full form lexica LX to suitable applications of LA-Morph and be tested on corpus-based word lists in order to provide extensions with sufficient data coverage of the lexicon and the morphology.

3. Functional verification in communication The formal grammars and parsers for natural languages should be supplemented with an automatic semantic and pragmatic interpretation that is (i) in line with the basis assumptions of the Slim theory of language and (ii) demonstrated to be functional in automatic applications.