FoCL, Chapter 6: Structure and functioning of signs 84

6. Structure and functioning of signs

6.1 Reference mechanisms of different sign types

6.1.1 The mechanism of natural language communication as described so far

1. PoP-1: Language use as an internal matching between meaning_{1} and a subcontext

2. PoP-2: Entrance subcontext determined by STAR-point of the sign

3. PoP-3: Derivation order is the time-linear sequence of words 6.1.2 Alternatives of description

[figure: individual sign; context; possibility 1 (horizontal):; description of; syntactico-semantic composition; possibility 2 (vertical):; description of pragmatic interpretation; meaning1]
\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

FoCL, Chapter 6: Structure and functioning of signs 85

6.1.3 Example with minimal syntax

Me up. Weather nice. Go beach. Catch fish. Fish big. Me hungry. Fix breakfast. Eat fish. Feel good.

6.1.4 Fourth principle of pragmatics (PoP-4)

The meaning_{1} of the sign type symbol is defined as an M-concept. Symbols refer from their place in a positioned sentence by matching their M-concept with suitable contextual referents (I-concepts_{loc}).

6.1.5 Fifth principle of pragmatics (PoP-5)

The meaning_{1} of the sign type index is defined as a pointer. An index refers by pointing from its place in the positioned sentence into appropriate parameter values.

6.1.6 Sixth principle of pragmatics (PoP-6)

The reference mechanism of the sign type name is based on an act of naming which consists in adding a name-marker to the internal representation of the individual or object in question. A name refers by matching its surface with a corresponding marker.

\begin{matrix}c \\ ◯ \end{matrix}1999 Roland Hausser

6.1.7 Comparing iconic, indexical, and name-based reference

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red index^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}_{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}_{.}^{red triangle}^{r} red symbol

6.1.8 Reference in nonverbal and preverbal communication

1. nonverbal iconic reference consists in spontaneously imitating the referent by means of gestures or sounds,

2. nonverbal indexical reference consists in pointing at the referent, and

3. nonverbal name-based reference consists in pointing at the referent while simultaneously pronouncing a name.

FoCL, Chapter 6: Structure and functioning of signs 87

6.1.9 Seventh principle of pragmatics (PoP-7)

The sign type symbol occurs as noun, verb, and adjective-adverbial. The sign type index occurs as noun and adjective-adverbial. The sign type name occurs only as noun.

6.1.10 Relation between sign types and parts of speech

.^{.} name symbol index  verb adj-adv noun Peter man he  here  see old

6.2 Internal structure of symbols and indices

6.2.1 Internal components of the sign types symbol and index

• The surface is constrained by the laws of acoustic articulation (in the original medium of spoken language).

• The category reflects the combinatorial properties of the part of speech and the inflectional class to which the sign belongs.

• The meaning_{1} reflects the conceptual structures of the internal context and/or contains characteristic pointers to certain contextual parameters.

• The glue connecting surface, category, and meaning_{1} consists in conventions which must be learned by each member of the language community.

6.2.2 De Saussure’s first law

Premier Principe; l’arbitraire du signe. Le lien unissant signifiant au signifiè est arbitraire, ou encore, puisque nous entendons par signe le total résultant de l’association d’un signifiant à un signifié, nous pouvons dire plus simplement: le signe linguistique est arbitraire. [The first law: arbitrariness of signs The link connecting the designator and the designated is arbitrary; and since we are treating a sign as the combination which results from connecting the designator with the designated, we can express this more simply as: the linguistic sign is arbitrary.]

F. de Saussure 1913/1972, p. 100

6.2.3 Possible functions of the sign type symbol

1. Initial reference to objects which have not been mentioned so far.

2. Repeating reference to referents which have already been introduced linguistically.

3. Metaphorical reference to partially compatible referents, both in initial and repeating reference.

6.2.4 Structural basis of symbolic reference

• the minimal meaning_{1} structure of symbols (M-concepts), and

• the limited selection of compatible referents available in the subcontext.

6.2.5 Integrating additional symbolic content to ensure reference

the table, the garden table, the green garden table, the small green garden table, the round small green garden table, the round small green garden table near the pool, etc.

6.2.6 Characterizing objects symbolically

[figure: surface:  living room  dining room; concept:  [purpose: living]  [purpose: dining]; context:; room1  room2]

FoCL, Chapter 6: Structure and functioning of signs 91

6.3 Indices for repeating reference

6.3.1 Pure indices Index words which contain no additional grammatical or symbolic meaning components, e.g. here, now, and you. 6.3.2 Nonpure indices Index words which incorporate symbolic-grammatical distinctions, e.g. between singular (I) and plural (we), between nominative (I, we) and oblique (me, us) case, etc. 6.3.3 Pointing area of third person pronouns It is outside of the STAR-point parameters and comprises all objects and persons that have been activated so far and are neither the speaker nor the hearer. 6.3.4 Repeating reference This special task reference arises in longer sentences and texts when a certain referent has already been introduced and needs to be referred to again.

FoCL, Chapter 6: Structure and functioning of signs 92

6.3.5 Using third person pronouns for repeating reference Because of their grammatical differentiation and the general nature of their pointing area, third person pronouns are ideally suited for a brief, precise, and versatile handling of repeating reference . 6.3.6 Indexically repeating reference

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6.3.7 Indexical reference without coreference

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6.3.8 Symbolically repeating reference I

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6.3.9 Symbolic reference without coreference

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6.3.10 Sentence structure blocking repeating reference

Anaphorical positioning:

After Peter_{i} came home he_{i} took a bath. Peter_{i} took a bath after he_{i} came home. %! Near Peter_{i} he_{i} sees a snake.

Cataphorical positioning:

After he_{i} came home Peter_{i} took a bath. %! He_{i} took a bath after Peter_{i} came home. Near him_{i} Peter_{i} saw a snake.

6.3.11 Cross-sentential coreference

Peter_{k} wanted to drive into the country. He_{k} waited for Fido_{i}. When the little dog_{i} came home he_{k} was glad.

6.3.12 Symbolically repeating reference II

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6.3.13 Initial reference established by symbol, index, and name

the little dog After he came home, he slept.

Fido

6.3.14 Repeating reference using symbol, index, and name

the little dog

After he came home, he slept. Fido

6.4 Exceptional properties of icon and name

6.4.1 Example of an icon (street sign)

[figure: ; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜; ˜]˜

6.4.2 The controversy between naturalists and conventionalists

[The naturalists] maintained that all words were indeed ‘naturally’ appropriate to the things they signified. Although this might not always be evident to the layman, they would say, it could be demonstrated by the philosopher able to discern the ‘reality’ that lay behind the appearance of things. Thus was born the practice of conscious and deliberate etymology. The term itself (being formed from the Greek stem etymo- signifying ‘true’ or ‘real’) betrays its philosophical origin. To lay bare the origin of a word and thereby its ‘true’ meaning was to reveal one of the truths of ‘nature’.

J. Lyons 1968, p. 4 f.

6.4.3 Comparing the structure of symbol and icon

surface^{M-concept}  ^{surface}^{M-concept} motivated icon: symbol:  unmotivated

6.4.4 Comparing the structure of icon and name

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surface: meaning: context:  ^{R2D2} icon  ^{R2D2} name  matching frontier

6.5 Pictures, pictograms, and letters

6.5.1 Transition from picture to icon to symbol

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 ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{red}  ^{red}^{red}  ^{r}  ^{r} red triangle^{r}^{red} picture  icon  symbol

6.5.2 Rotation principle underlying transition from icon to letter

.^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{bull} meaning  letter^{’lf}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}  ^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} icon  ^{bull} ⟹  ^{’lf} sound^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.}^{.} word

6.5.3 Aristotle on writing

Spoken words are the signs of mental experience and written words are the signs of spoken words. De Interpretatione, 1